Differential Fertility free essay sample

Table 1. 1 : Demographic Profile of Bishnupriya Manipuri, Cachar District, Assam. Population size Male 958 (51. 51%) Female902 (48. 49%) Sex Ratio941 (female per thousand male) Total no of household254 Average no of member per household7. 32 Child Dependency Ratio34. 10 Old Dependency Ratio. 08 Total Dependency Ratio34. 18 Crude birth rate32. 79 Total fertility rate3. 37 Average completed fertility per women3. 57 General fertility rate105. 90 1. INTRODUCTION Fertility : The actual reproductive performance, (Bhende and KanitKar, 2001) ; the actual occurrence of births, especially live births (Cox 1959) Is a true dependent genetic concept. Fertility, a major component of population growth occupies an important place in population study. Fertility though a biological phenomenon is often influenced by number of social, economic and cultural factors and as a result we come across fertility differentials from population to population. Fertility is regarded as an instrument for perpetuation of human society and one of the basic determinants of population growth. It is a matter of fact that every society replenishes it self with the help of fertility. But at the same time excessive replenishing results to population explosion. It now becomes a menace and despite several efforts to stabilize the population of our country, the population is increasing by leaps and bounds causing enormous vexed problems to the peaceful existence of human society and environment. India shares more than 17% of the world population in comparison to its land area of 2. 4%. The population figure of India has already crossed one billion as evident from the absolute count, figuring to 1027 million souls according to the ever first gigantic decennial census of 2001 (Bose, 2001). Assam, being in one of the North Eastern States of India, facing an abnormal growth of population, is inhabited by a large number of identifiable and distinct ethnic groups, each of whom shows different level of fertility. Moreover, social and cultural traits, religious beliefs, customs, traditional economic pursuits as well as exposure to modernity and health care facilities differ from ethnic group- to- group and place-to-place. The Bishnupriya or Bishnupriya Manipuri is an Indo-Aryan language speaker. In Manipur the language is still spoken in Jiribam sub division. A large number of Bishnupriya Manipuri people settled in Assam decades ago particularly in the districts of Cachar, Karimganj and Hailakandi. The Bishnupriyas here are regarded as one of the major groups of people in Cachar and Karimganj district of Assam. For decades controversy over use of word â€Å"Manipuri† by Bishnupriyas as suffix has embittered the relationship between Meiteis and Bishnupriyas. Since then due to constant intimidation from Meiteis counter part , the Bishnupriya Manipuris are now trying to reassert themselves and create a niche of their own in terms of population, language, culture. RESEARCH SETTINGS:- The study area comprises of four clustered villages, which are inhabited by BishnupriyaManipuri. (Table 1. 1 shows male and female %). Few kms away from Silchar taking the path of Chencoorie over looking G. C College Road One can easily approach the villages Singari, Bhakatpur, Kalinagar, Rengti Bsati. The dominant group is Bishnupriya Manipuri. The population of the study areas is estimated to be around 25,156 (District Census 1991). Singari : Study Village Fig 1. 1 Map Showing Assam With District Cachar and Village Singari. PEOPLE:- In the present study, an attempt has been made to ascertain the fertility Performance of Bishnupriya Manipuri of Cachar District of Assam. An attempt has also been made to examine fertility differentials by some of their socio cultural factors. The Bishnupriya Manipuri people are ethnic groups that inhabit Manipur, India. There is little solid historical evidence, and various differing opinions, available on the origin of the people of Manipur. Some believe that they descended from Indo- Chinese stock with some mixture of Aryan Blood, while some scholars believe that the Manipuris are the Indo-Aryan Kashtriyas mentioned in the Mahabharatha. Another school of thought considers them to be the descendants of Kiratas. The inhabitants of Manipur have identified themselves as Manipuris for many centuries. Manipur was formerly divided into small territories, occupied by different clans, such as the Khumal, Moirang, Angom, Luwang, and Ningothouja clans, and territories were named after clan. Some of the clans had Aryan decent and some Kuki-Chin Mongoloid descent. These different clans of Aryan and Mongoloid people stayed together in Manipur for centuries. Over the course of time, the Meiteis (the Ning tauja clan) occupied all the territories towards 15th centuries AD and established a sovereign Kingdom known as Meiteis Leibak (the land of Meiteis). The land was given the name Bishnupriya Manipuri Girls Bishnupriya Marriage Fig 1. 2 showing the pictures of Bishnupriya Manipuri girls and marriage. ‘Manipuri’ towards eighteenth century, when religious development of India reached Manipur. However the Bishnupriyas were living in the valley of Manipur from centuries before the period. There are many historical accounts and works of both Indian, European scholars bear the testimony. THE BISHNUPRIYA DIASPORA:- In the early part of the 18th century, for various reasons including repeated Burmese invasions and local oppression, Bishnupriya people moved out of Manipur in large numbers to Cachar, Sylhet and Tripura. A small number of people migrated to Burma also. Those who remained in Manipur merged with the Meitei. Bishnupriya Manipuri was originally confined only to the surroundings of the Lake Loktak in Manipur. The principal localities where this language was spoken were now known as Khangabok, Heirok, Mayang Yamphal, Bishnupur, Khunan, Ningthankhong, Ngakhong, Thamna poxpi and so on. However, later great majority of speakers fled away from Manipur and took refuge in Assam, Tripura, Sylhet, and Cachar during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries due to the internal conflicts among the princes of Manipur and due to Burmese attack. Consequently, it was difficult for the small number of Bishnupriyas who remained in Manipur to retain their language because of the impact of Meitei, although Dr. G. A. Grierson, in 1891, found the existence of a considerable number of speakers in two or three villages near Bishnupur, locally known as Lanang dong (LSI, Vol-V, Page 419). The language is now spoken in parts of Assam. i)NEED FOR THE STUDY:- The data on fertility of Bishnupriya Manipuri are still unrepresented. The need of the study is to analyse and highlight the reproductive norms and see whether present scenario has direct association or bearence on fertility. It well be interesting to see the fertility behaviours of Bishnupriya Manipuri in the context of Govt. of India population policy to achieve the population norms by 2025 AD to be at par with millennium development goal. The study village is very close to the urban setting. Bearing in mind paucity of research works on demographic variable among this population, the present study has been conducted on the Indo-Mongoloid population to know the relationship of different variables of fertility. (II)OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:- Here the main objectives are to examine the relationship between the fertility and socio-economic condition which might interplay. Moreover fertility levels and trends are to be ascertained among Bishnupriya Manipuri women taking into consideration economic status, occupation status, marital status and educational attainment, contraceptive use, female autonomy. To study differential fertility on the basis of socio- economic variable by using standardized measure:- .To know the fertility behaviour of Bishnupriya Manipuri women and its differentials on the basis of 1. age at marriage. 2. age at menarche. 3. age at menopause. 4. education-fertility relationship. 5. relationship of occupation with that of fertility. 6. knowledge about family planning and use of contraceptive. To determine the age at menarche : The menarche age constitutes an important aspect of population dynamics. Wide variation in menstrual cycle is reported to be caused by the interaction of number of factors. With the onset of menarche women’s actual reproductive life begins. A woman becomes biologically fecund (Capacity of bearing child) with the onset of menstruation. To determine the age at menopause: The interval between the age at menarche and age at menopause it referred to as reproductive span. Menopause is the time of the women’s life when reproductive capacity ceases (WHO, 1996). The age at which natural menopause occurs is between the ages of 45 and 55 years for women worldwide. Age at marriage : There is a direct relation between age at marriage and fertility. This is because age at marriage marks the beginning of the social and biological entry of the woman into married life in most societies. Dhandekar (1961) writes that â€Å" Important among factors that determine the levels of human fertility are exposure or no exposure to pregnancy through marriage. The exposure begins evidently with age at marriage†. According to Busfield (1961) age at marriage varies considerably among different cultural groups. Age at marriage has been ecognized as one of the prominent determinants influencing fertility. Women getting married at an early age naturally experience more years of reproductive span and tend to have more children when they reach menopause. The reverse is true for women getting married at a later stage (NSS, 1960-61; Agarwala, 1970; Sharma and Abdul, 1990; Muthrayappa, 1998). To examine the distb. of women by age at birth of their first Child : The higher and lower age at first issue among the population correspond to their age at marriage, which occurs highest and lowest respectively. PATTERNS OF AGE SPECIFIC FERTILITY RATES : The United Nations has classified fertility patterns of countries in three easily discernible types according to age at which fertility reaches it peak: An early peak pattern in which the maximum fertility occurs in the age group 20- 24; a late peak patterns in which the age specify fertility rates for women in the age groups 20-24 and 25-29 differ only slightly. Indian fertility has more or less broad-speak pattern. Two additional measure of fertility is the general fertility rate (GFR) which represents the annual number of births 1,000 women’s age (15-49) and the crude birth rate (CBR) which represent the annual number of births per 1,000 population will also be examined. To examine relationship of with that female education attainment: According to Dreze and Murthi in India female education can tune fertility levels and trends at distinct stages. 1. Desired family size. 2. The relationship between desired family size and planned number of births and Women’s ability to achieve the planned number of births and other stages. . To determine relationship between occupation and fertility. Educational attainment is linked to better health status for women and decrease in fertility. Both health status and education are also correlated with a better quality of life and higher socio – economic status. Figure 1. 3 showing the demographic characteristics of Assam, District (2001) iii) Hypothesis: The interpretation of the data will be on the basis of demographic transition theory. According to Freedman (! 79), the theory of the demographic transition developed to explain the process by which the patterns, characteristic of modern society emerged. The theory can be stated as follows :- The immediate impact of modernization on traditional societies is felt in food supplies, education and health. Birth rate remains at high levels ; but death rates fall sharply, his produces the rapid population growth rates characteristic of the earliest stage of the transition. Moreover, traditional societies are generally characterized by high degree on reliance on family patterns of production. Also large families are given high value for both economic and status reasons. Eventually, the socio economic changes brought by modernization emphasize the importance of small families and birth rate will follow a declining pattern, which results in the declining population growth rates characteristics of MDC’s (Macionis, 1991). Research Questions: 1. Is women’s marriage associated with fertility and fertility related behaviour? More specifically, is fertility linked with contraceptive usage, the number of children born, and a women’s age at the time of first childbirth? 2. Is women’s education associated with age at marriage ? 3. Is fertility related with husband’s educational level? 4. Is fertility and its differentials pronounced among the Bishnupriya women of study village? iv) Limitations: The major and most important limitation is unavailability of census data (2001) of Assam. Assam in the abode of many tribes and numerous caste groups. Reports on fertility of caste group are few and far between. (Fig 1. 3) Small population groups like Bishnupriya Manipuri are not studied comprehensively. Sporadic Bio – Anthropological studies have been done but data are not adequate in the context of present study. Fertility is one of the three principal components of population dynamics, but data on Bishnupriya Manipuri are not available, although results of some recent works on Meitei Manipuri are met in. Changes in fertility levels over time can be tracked by examining fertility estimates from surveys and census. In case of Bishnupriya Manipuri such thing could not be followed owing to lack of data on fertility. The present studies will definitely open up a new vista in the study of fertility and its differentials among the Bishnupriya Manipuri of Cachar district. The study village (Appn. II ) comprises â€Å" The Bishnupriya Manipuri† and for decades they have been living here close to urban area like Silchar. Every now and then they interact with people of urban areas and education of late made an impact on the population specially on women folk. They are traditionally followers of Vaishnavism and ardent followers of Lord Krishna. They are satisfied with what they have and like to remain being rooted in traditional culture. Yet modernization and urbanization are likely to play key role in shaping the future population. So a framework has been selected which will test factors affecting fertility behaviour of Bishnupriya Manipuri women. In this study, fertility rate differentials examine the impact of economic and social development that are characterized by women’s education, marriage, childbirth, occupation and use of contraceptive. v) Chapterization : It introduces to the study of fertility and its differentials ; fertility behaviour and its implications with reference to works done by different authorities at different levels in different countries. Summing up the whole idea a passionate view has been taken to work out a model for present study and thereby linkages at different levels were scertained. India’s population projection envisages on fertility rate at replacement level to gain control over depleted economic condition. Also, a country cannot prosper without control over its ever increasing population size. Need for the study is to examine the reproductive behaviours of the Bishnupriya women as those studies will help the authorities to choose ways and means to curb the menacing population growth causing enormous problems and anxieties in the society. This chapter 1 looks into the hypothesis and limitations of the study. Chapter 2 takes note of related literature and reviews and also tries to examine the authenticity of the present study. Chapter 3 elaborates the methodology used in the present study. The definition and various research related measures are spelled out as far as practicable. Chapter 4 deals with the results and discussion of the present study. Here results and comparisons are viewed with reference to the works and results of different authorities at this level. Chapter5 states findings, conclusions suggestion for further research. CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In the early days ‘Population Control’ appeared as an emerging issue. After that malleable approach emerged with the slogan â€Å"Development is the main Contraceptive† the focus shifted to social development and it had gained a great place in both to better living condition and to reducing population growth. Many researchers argued that India is not a model of social development. Contrary to this many states in India are showing progressive picture in terms of fertility decline. Its progress owes to the improvement of female literacy and declining infant mortality and more so other socio-economic indicators are not overlooked. The appearance of differentials in fertility by socio-economic development is a sensitive indicator of the early phase of fertility decline, (U. N. 1987). The United Nation (1987) defines development as â€Å"A multidimensional phenomenon, which includes level of economic production, education, provision of health service, status of women nutritional status of population, quality housing, distribution of goods and services, transport system and access to communication network. From the above definition it is clear that development includes both social and economic development. Caldwell, Reddy (1982), Dyson and Maore (1983) and Malhotra, Vanneman and Kishore (1995) have added cultural dimension in understanding fertility differential in India. After the introduction of family planning programmes in the country, it was thought that economic growth would automatically reduce poverty and slow the growth of population. Several theories have been put forward in terms of fertility transition in different regions in the world and the mechanism, which reduces fertility levels, and differtials based on changes in economic and social structure of the population were brought in to the discussion. Demand and supply theories and their application particularly to less developed countries have been criticized with several logical arguments (Bongaarts and Menken, 1983; Lee and Bulatao 1983). Later, a substantial part of social science literature on modernization and its impacts on fertility deals with the lack of synchronization in the evolution of the economic, political and cultural subsystem (Lesthaeghe, 180,83. Livi Bacci, 1986). Cald Well’s assertion that a maximization of fertility is rational and conscious choice in traditional societies has sufficient evidence for reconsideration but in sufficient to sustain more precise conclusions. More so, difference and changes in the level of natural fertility appear to be largely uncorrelated to the economic factor (Clealand and Wilson; 1987) Nag (1980) has described modernization and fertility is well sphere in population dynamics. He has pointed out modernization; spread of education, improvement in health and nutrition, the emergence of secular norms and beliefs can reduce fertility. More specifically the reduction in mortality has been measured as leading agents in the rising natural fertility in several populations (Chandrasekaran, 1955; Srinivasan and Jejeebhoy, 1980; Nag, 1985; Srinivasan et. al, 1985; Easterlin, (1985); Cain (1983) they had shown clear correction of fertility and land use pattern. Khan (1981) has observed that urban areas accommodate the centers for educational, employment, transportation, better health services and are seen as a salient feature of fertility reduction. According to Dreze and Murthi in India female education can tune fertility levels and trends at district stages: 1. Desired family size, 2. The relationship between desired family size and planned number of births and Women’s ability to achieve the planned number of Births and other stages that indicate the ability of educated women to translate their inspiration in to reality. In another studies P. N Mari Bhat and A. V Francis Zavier (1995) had shown that the religious disparities also play an important role in decline or increasing fertility means high fertility rate in the Muslim population compared to the Hindu population. Fertility transition in the Indian States is on progress since the 1990’s. Data collected from Sample Registration System (SRS) indicate that the crude Birth rate and the total fertility rate declined respectively from 31 and 4. 0 in 1991 to 24 and 2. in 2004. This trend points to the fact that bulk of fertility decline is now occurring among uneducated women. This transition is being driven mainly by the increasing contraceptive prevalence rate among uneducated women (Bhat, 2002; McNay et, al, 2003). Based on the framework of fertility determinants, a major body of past literature demonstrated evidence of early and significant fertility reduction among educated and socio-economically advanced women (Caldwell et, al, 1982; Coal e and Watkins, 1986). However, recent literature recognizes that the fertility reduction among uneducated women is a complimentary phenomenon to the early phase of fertility decline among educated women (McNay et, al, 2003; AroKiasamy et, al, 2004). Reproduction high or low levels, is so important to the family and the society everywhere that its level is more or less controlled by the cultural and religious norms about family size and related behaviors such as age at marriage, time of first intercourse, use of contraception and abortion. As described by Freedman (1963) in each society the norms about these vital are consistent with social institution in which they are deeply embedded. In a traditional, closely-knit society changes in fertility are unlikely to occur without prior, at least, simultaneous changes in the institutions. Several authors’, (Dyson and Moore; 1983; Bose, 1992) have carried out studies to search for the factors responsible for regional variations in fertility in India. Assam, one of the North-Eastern States in India now being over burdened with explosive growth of population, is inhabited by large number of ethnic groups, each of them showing different levels of fertility and contraceptive behaviour. Thus present study holds key to peep in to problems caused by population explosion. In addition, it is argued in many studies (Goldscheider and Uhlenberg, 1969; Robert, Roberts and Lee, 1974; Sly, 1970) that in a traditional ethnic group, social norms and behaviors tend to be guided by the relative position of a particular community in the social stratification system. The view point first achieved popularity some years ago, but then fell out of favour and is only now reemerging as a major research issue. Most studies have concentrated on major groups. Marginal groups were completely ignored. The Bishnupriya Manipuris of Assam thus evokes much interest to the demographers. Indeed this study would open the floodgate and the concerned authorities would begin to show interest in the study of marginal groups and small ethnic groups which are too many in this part of N. E India. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY : The present study which aims at understanding the fertility and its differential among the Bishnupriya Manipuris of Cachar District, is based on data collected from three villages namely, Singari, Bhakatpur and Kalinjar. Altogether 254 households were surveyed for census enumeration using structured schedule. The data comprise information like name, Age, Sex, Clan, Marital Status, Educational attainment, Occupational status, Age at marriage, Age at menarche, Age at menopause, attitude towards family planning and family size, the proximate determinants of fertility, children ever orn and their survival status, live births in the last two years, sex preference and female autonomy. Qualitative data were collected through in depth interview with village heads and other persons and through several group discussion and rigorous fieldwork. The overall theoretical framework used in this study was followed from Freedman’s (1963) Concept that normative values have a key role in explaini ng differentials in fertility. The framework shows hypothetical relationship between fertility and other variables that influence fertility outcome. The relationship between the variable is conceptualized by first making a distinction between the proximate variable (Bongaarts 1982) and the contextual feature determining fertility keeping in mind the current movement for the cultural revival among many indigenous groups in North-Eastern India, ‘minority groups status’ (Gold Scheider and Uhlenberg 1969; Robert, Roberts and Lee 1973; Johnson 1970; Sly 1970) is included as an important contextual variable in the frame work. For a detail fertility survey, a random sample of 417 ever married women were interviewed using structured interview schedule. BASIC MEASURE OF FERTILITY USED IN ANALYSIS On the basis of data collected from vital registration, census and surveys – different types of fertility may be computed. The first type of measure being termed as ‘Period’ measures are related to given period and based on data referring to that period. In the present study the following measures were followed. The period type of measure of fertility refers to the reproductive performance of women up to certain period. The question on â€Å"the number of children ever born† is asked. The third type of measure of fertility attempts to measure fertility indirectly on the basis of the age and sex distribution of the population obtained from a census. Measures based on performance during 1 year. THE CRUDE BIRTH RATE:- The crude birth rate is the ratio of the total registered live births in a year in a particular area to the total mid-year population of that area Multiplied by 1000. B — X K, where P is the total live births during a year. P is the total population and K is 1000. THE GENERAL FERTILITY RATE:- It is defined as the ratio of total live births in same. specified year in a particularly area to the number of women in the child bearing age, multiplied by, 1000. It is computed as follows. B — XK, where P B is the number of live births during a year. P is the mid year population 1 year of women between the age of 15 and 44 and 45 and K is 1000. Why do we need them? †¢ For comparisons in fertility behavior at different ages. †¢ For comparisons of fertility at different age over time. For comparison of fertility across countries / populations. The average number of children that would be born to a woman by the time she ended childbearing if she were to pass through all her child bearing years confirming to the age specific fertility rates of a given year. Symbolically, TFR= Sum of ASFRS ( f x ) f x ASFRS are for single year age. TFR= 5 X sum of ASFR ( f x to x+5) if ASFR s are for 5 years age groups. CHILD WOMEN RATIO:- The measure commonly used is the ratio of children under 5 years old to women of child bearing age, referred to as the â€Å"general fertility ratio or the ratio of children to women or the child women ratio† This measure is computed by dividing the number of children under 5 years old in the population by the number of women 15 to 49 years old. The computation formula is :- P 0 – 4 —X 1000 P + 15 – 49 Where, P 0 – 4 is the number of children under 5 years old and P + 15 49 is the number of women between exact ages 15 and 4 CHILDREN EVER BORN:- The information on the number of children ever born is collected from ever married or currently married women through fertility surveys. The present age of the mother is also available from the some sources. By cross classifying the age of the currently married women and the number of children ever born to her, it is possible to compute the average number of children ever born per currently married women. This measure is based on the actual reproductive performance of a group of women and provides information on the average number of children born performed women upto a certain age, or if the group has passed out of the reproduction age group, by the end of the child bearing period. When the average number of children born per women is computed for those who have crossed the reproductive ages, the measure is known as. COMPLETED FERTILITY:- Parity Progression Ratios:- An elaborate measure of the chance of having a child is the parity progression ratio by Henry . The parity progression ratio ‘a’ for a women is defined as the probability that a women of parity ‘I’ will have at least one more child. Description of variables considered are as follows: Education is considered as a variable being classified into different categories basing on the educational status. Education is included in the study as it is education which raises and spreads awareness to come in terms with changing view of the world and one can go beyond one’s own realm to tread the path of glory. It is the level of education which enhances one’s perception to modern ways of living and approach to health care facilities and fosters role-relationship of the males and female in the process of family building. Occupation of both male and female affect the fertility behaviour. They are: ? Illiterate. ? Literate up to primary level, ? Literate above primary but less than secondary level completed, ? High school completed. ? Graduation completed, and. ? Post graduation. Occupation of husbands is classified into 7 categories depending upon one’s main activity. The different categories are:- Cultivators. Agriculture labour. Live Stock. Handicraft. Trade and Commerce. Service (Govt. / Private). Others. It is often agreed that improvement in the economic condition retards fertility. It has been found no strong performance for sons over daughters among the people and the preferential behaviour has stimulated couples for having more children. Age at marriage of wife in addition to describing the length of exposer for child bearing is also an indicator of modernity. In the absence of any protective measure against the child bearing, the earlier the age at marriage of wife, the higher the number of children ever born to the couples. Adoption of contraceptive device, modern or traditional intended for temporary or permanent contract of child birth has direct bearing on fertility. Immunization, which is assumed to assure parents of providing safe guard against many fatal diseases acts as a natural determent to high fertility. Age Specific Fertility Rates: The age specific fertility rates are computed as follows:- bi X K Pi Where, bi is the number of live births to mothers of a specified age group in the population during a year. Pi is the mid-year female population in the same age group; and k is 1000. Total fertility rate- the total fertility rate is the sum of the age specific fertility rates of women in each five-year age group from 15 to 44 or 49. Contraceptive practice is taken from the couple’s response to the question whether either both of them ever adopted any contraceptive measure, modern or traditional for spacing, controlling or stopping childbirth. STATUS OF WOMEN:- Among Bishnupriya Manipuri, son’s preference is not existed in a dominant way. Though they prefer son still they hold woman in high esteem and girls are left in wilderness either. The study village shows sex ratio 940 (female per thousand males). The Bishnupriyas are ardent followers of â€Å"Krishna† and young girls and elderly women every year religiously perform â€Å"Rash Leela†. Hence girls are always held in reverence and not treated as a mere sex tool and performer of domestic chores. The women actively take part in economic pursuits. Every house of the village is adorned with at least one heirloom. The girls are weavers and they weave garments of daily use. The women are not subjected to subordination and they participate in every sphere of socio – economic activities. They have their say in decision making and girls education is given due importance. In course of fieldwork it was observed that females do perform small errands and others right from sweeping, washing, arvesting, cleaning and also doing official work. Most of them raise vegetables in nearby vegetable plot and out of which they meet up everyday needs. Fertility behaviour of Bishnupriya Manipuri women is definitely controlled by the status in the society they hold. The results obtained from the village studies reflect confirm the hypothesis held earlier. CHAPTER 4 Results and Discussion : Study of fertility differentials and analysis of factors related with them are of immense importance. Household occupation has been previously take into consideration, during National Sample Survey, for studying into effect on fertility pattern. That study indicated that the fertility performance of the agriculture class at successive year after marriage stage was slightly higher than non agricultural class. Similar occupational differential was also observed in Poona City, fertility decreasing from manual labour to non manual labour and from non- manual to higher professional and salaried employees (N. C Das; A Das Gupta 1974). Various studies done on employed and unemployed women show demonstration and behavioural differences between the two categories. In one study on women from different employment status, employed women were found to report healthier lifestyles and more health awareness than their unemployed counterparts. One change brought about by increased health awareness was that they had about half the previous pregnancies reported by housewives (Najman J. M, V,Williams, G. M, Anderson M. J,(1989). Economic activity outside the house evokes an enlightening and increased awareness among women, which results in healthy life style behaviour, as observed by Najman. It also increases the desire and responsibility to limit the size of the family. Srivastava observed that women working in white collar professions had 34. 9 percentages lower fertility than non-working women. In a study done on differential fertility in Central India the mean number of children ever born were 4. for unemployed women and 5 for employed women. The difference between their averages remained the same when they were equated on the basis of their percentage age. But the mean fertility in the upper age group, i. e. 35 years and above, was less in the employed than unemployed women E. D. Driver (1963). Distribution according to age in the present study shows lower mean fertility in the employed women of all the age groups. Fertility differential according to socio economic variables wer e also studied here. Education affects fertility in many complex ways by affecting proximate fertility determinants. Education of wife has been considered to be a more important factor in this respect than of husband. Mean fertility has been shown to have an inverse relation with education of wife in many studies. Age at menarche ; One of the important biological determinants of fertility shows a range varying between 10-18 years among the Girls of 24 Countries of the World (Shah, 1958) . Bundi Tribe of Highland, New Guinea records the latest age at menarche. On records the girls from this tribe experience the latest mean age at menarche of 18 years (Malcolm, 1970). The intervention of genetical and environmental factors influencing the age at menarche of a population is well documented (Johnson, 1974; Barry, 1988: Janner and Keeffe, 1967). These are reports on the variation of the age at menarche In hot countries 13 years, temperate zones -14. 3 years and cold countries-15. years (Bhasin and Bhasin, 1993), 12. 5 years and 14 years for girls of middle and lower socio-economic classes respectively (Johnston, 1974 and Eveleth and Tanner, 1976). Studies also show that positive secular trend in age at menarche is occurring in various parts of the world (Itoshi and Kouchi; 1981; Tanner and Keeffe, 1976; Barry, 1988). The table 4. 1 shows the age of wife distribution of age at menarche of Bishnupriya Manipuri women. At the age of 11,12,13,14 years, (the highest percentage s 7. 67, 16. 0, 64. 26, 8. 39) of women are found to have their first menstruation. The mean age of menarche is 12. 84 + 0. 049. Table 4. 1 Distribution of Woman according to Age at Menarche |Age at menarche (in yr) |Number of Women |Percentage | |11 |32 |7. 7 | |12 |68 |16. | |13 |268 |64. 3 | |14 |35 |8. 4 | |15 |8 |1. 9 | |16 |6 |1. | |17 |- |- | |18 |- |- | |Total |417 |100 | Mean  ± S. E = 12. 84  ± 0. 04 , S. D = 1. 01 Montego (1955) is of the opinion that the menarche before 12 years of the Age is abnormal. The mean menarcheal age of the present study group (12. 84  ± 0. 04) is relatively low compared to the Meitei (13. 60 + 0. 10 years) (Jibon Kumar Singh 2006). The mean age at menarche among Assamese girls (comprising Brahmin, Kalita and Kaibarta), is 12. 23 + 0. 19 years among Brahmin girls, 11. 96 + 0. 16 years among Kalita and 11. 92 + 0. 08 years among Kaibrata . The Bishnupriya Manipuri women come closer to Assamese girls. The other populations of N. E India like Kabui, the Pangals show (15. 40 + o. 23 years) (14. 40 + 0. 08 years) respectively ( Jibon Kumar Singh 2006). The mean age at menarche among Brahmin girls is 13. 85 + 0. 12) and for Rajput girls is (13. 85 + 0. 12). Mehta et, al (1991) observed that the onset of menarche is significantly delayed and Renuka (1971), Dane et,al (1992), and Chatterjee and Mandal (1994) two reached similar conclusion that the girls belonging high socio-economic status attain poverty earlier. Age at marriage Distribution of women by age at marriage is shown in the table(4. 2). Age at marriage is one of the important determinate of fertility it is the beginning of the reproductive span of a women’s life. Thus any change at marriage can influence in increasing or decreasing the reproductive life. The low age at marriage of the female increases fertility and mortality by providing longer duration and higher increases of maternal and infant mortality (Bhattacherjee, Singh and singh – 1994) The differential in age at marriage between states shows that there is a clear cut difference between the states of Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh on one hand with lower age at marriage and relatively higher age at marriage in Orissa, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. With regard to place of residence, irrespective of the state the general trend is that among urban areas higher proportion of marriage are taking place in the higher age group. Hence it can be hypothesized that early marriage is a rural phenomena. The roles of cultural factors such as religion, caste also influence marriage behaviour in developing countries. Female literacy and education are considered to be important determinants of age at marriage of female, particularly in developing countries. In western countries the level of female literacy is not very much associated with age at marriage because there is small variance in female literacy across the countries. In India, state level studies reveal that female literacy can alone explain nearly 70 percent 1984). It is seen that early age at marriage is higher in case of non-literates in comparison to literates. It is observed that in case of Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh , 73 percent women married less than or equal to 15 years, followed by 40 in Orissa, 65 in Maharashtra and 30 percent in Tamil Nadu. Like education employment also affects the female age at marriage in India. Some studies have taken three variables of working status of women in assessing their impact on female age at marriage. These are female work participation rate, current employment status of married women and work before marriage (Bhagat, 2002). There is a relationship between female work participation rate and mean age at marriage. Earlier studies have found that there is almost no relationship between female work participation rate and mean age at marriage of female in different divisions of Uttar Pradesh (Hussain, 1968). Since Malaker (1978) has analyzed the data at the combined level of rural and urban areas, the negative association found by him may not be true for urban areas where females are largely employed in service sector. Among those who are working 71 percent in Rajasthan and 76 percent in Uttar Pradesh were married less than or equal to 15 years compare to lower Proportion in Orissa, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu are married at the age of 16 years and above. Standard of living also affects the age at marriage. Standard of living is categorized as low, medium and high. It is found that higher age at marriage take place in case of high standard of living. Similarly media exposure, partially exposure and fully exposure. Those who are not exposed to media, they are marrying at earlier ages in comparison to those with fully exposure. With regards to total children ever born, those who have four or more children. Higher proportion gave got married less than or equal to 15 years of age. Among those who have child loss they have got married at earlier ages. The mean age at marriage in different age groups among the Bishnupriya Manipuri is presented (Table-4. 2). The mean age at marriage ranges between16. 5 years to 18. 76 years, the highest being in the age group 35-39 (mean age 19. 69). The results exhibit that females generally marry at the age group 15-19. The mean age at marriage is found to increase gradually from the lower to the higher age groups. The highest mean age at marriage is observed in the age group 35-39 years. |TABLE – 4. | |DISTRIBUTION OF WOMEN ACCORDING TO AGE AT MARRIAGE | | | | | | | | | |AGE AT MARRIAGE IN YEARS | | | |No Of Women | | | |by percentage | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Mean age at | | | | | | | | |age in years | |12 | |13 | |14 | |15 | |16 | |17 | |18 | |19 | |20 | |21 | |22 | |23 | |24 | |25 | |26 | |27 | |All | |Marriage | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |15-19 | |- | |- | |- | |2 | |2 | |8 | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |12 | |16. | | | | | | | | | |20-24 | |- | |- | |3 | |4 | |3 | |7 | |8 | |3 | |1 | |3 | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |32 | |17. 8 | | | | | | | | | |25-29 | |- | |- | |3 | |3 | |4 |10 | |5 | |12 | |15 | |14 | |- | |2 | |6 | |- | |- | |- | |74 | |19. 3 | | | | | | | | | |30-34 | |- | |- | |4 | |6 | |5 | |6 | |6 | |20 | |22 | |6 | |3 | |4 | |3 | |1 | |- | |- | |86 | |19. 3 | | | | | | | | | |35-39 | |- | |- | |4 | |5 | |4 | |7 | |8 | |21 | |20 | |8 | |8 | |1 | |- | |4 | |3 | |4 | |97 | |19. 69 | | | | | | | | | |40-44 | |- | |- | |3 |4 | |3 | |7 | |9 | |15 | |8 | |2 | |5 | |4 | |3 | |1 | |1 | |1 | |66 | |19. 4 | | | | | | | | | |45-49 | |- | |- | |4 | |3 | |5 | |8 | |11 | |5 | |2 | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |38 | |1 7. 1 | | | | | | | | | |50+ | |- | |- | |4 | |2 | |6 | |-